Bilingual Acquisition in Early Childhood

Bilingual Acquisition in Early Childhood Are bilingual children two monolingual children in one? Discuss. Research into bilingual acquisition in early childhood has investigated whether infants and toddlers brought up in bilingual settings can be said to have a single language system during the initial stages of language acquisition or whether these early bilinguals develop two separate language systems from the start. If the latter can be shown to be the case, it could be argued that bilingual children are indeed two monolingual children in one. However, there has been considerable debate over the merits of both claims for some period of time. This essay will consider the arguments and some of the evidence put forward in support of both points of view. Researchers differentiate between two languages acquired from birth (simultaneous bilingual acquisition) and the acquisition of a second language during early childhood. Research, intending to address the question of developing bilingual language systems in the infant, focuses on simultaneous bilingual acquisition. Although as Lanza points out it isn’t always easy to decide on â€Å"the cut-off point between first language acquisition and early second-language acquisition.† [1] The language environment, with both parents speaking both languages or the adoption of a one language one parent approach, is also a consideration. It is often pointed out that bilingual children acquire their languages in much the same way as monolingual children acquire theirs. Pearson and colleagues testing the acquisition of vocabulary found that â€Å"differences in average vocabulary size (between the bilingual and monolingual children in their study) across the age range tested were relat ively small.†[2] Studies of childhood bilingual development have shown that in almost all cases, children mix elements from the two languages they are acquiring. This has lead to claims that in the early stages of acquisition bilingual children have a single language system. Code mixing may involve any aspect of the child’s language system i.e., phonetic, lexical, phrasal, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. Code mixing is not limited to children. Many researchers have investigated the phenomenon of code mixing or switching in adult bilinguals. However, there are important differences between the two. Adult code switching is rule governed. â€Å"What is thought to distinguish bilingual children’s mixing from adult mixing is the lack of systematicity or compliance to linguistic rules in the case of children.† [3] The fact that mixing declines with age has been cited as evidence that the child originally had one system that gradually separates into two. The period of mixing is followed by language differentiation sometime during the bilingual child’s third year. Volterra and Taeschner’s seminal paper interpreting code mixing in terms of a three-stage model of a single language system has had numerous supporters and critics. [4] A growing number of researchers have published papers in the past couple of decades supporting a two-language system. In 1985 Vihman looked at a bilingual Estonian/ English child. Having pointed out that there was insufficient data concerning the child’s comprehension skills in both languages to confirm whether or not he had a single system: â€Å"It seems likely that two receptive stores did exist in a rudimentary form even at this earliest stage, however, since comprehension appeared to develop rapidly in both English and Estonian contexts well before the development of a wide-ranging productive vocabulary.† [5] Considerable research has shown that monolingual children develop comprehension before production skills. The author agreed with Lindholm and Padilla[6] that â€Å"bilingual children are able, from an early age, to differentiate their two systems†. [7] Genesee also found evidence of â€Å"differentiated underlying language systems† in his study of early bilinguals. He argued that â€Å"bilingual children are able to differentiate their language systems from the beginning and that they are able to use their developing language systems differentially in contextually sensitive ways.† [8] Paradis and Genesee concluded the bilingual children in their study developed entirely distinct pronoun system for the two languages. [9]Their research therefore supports the separate language hypothesis. Likewise, Quay’s study of an English/ Spanish bilingual child â€Å"provides no evidence for the two-stage model of lexical development proposed by Volterra and Taeschner.† [10] Empirical and Interpretative Difficulties Methodology Most researchers criticise the methodology used by previous researchers in the field. Diary studies of a single child are common making any generalisation difficult. Other factors making comparison and therefore generalisation difficult include: the differing exposure to the languages experienced by each child, their different language backgrounds and history, the different methods of language sampling undertaken by the various researchers, and the fact that to date there is no standardised measurements to compare children at various stages of bilingual development. Furthermore, diary studies may be insufficient to accurately reflect the linguistic competence of the child studied, regardless of whether or not the findings can be shown to be valid for other bilinguals. â€Å"Diary data may not capture all translation equivalents.† [11] Quay also points out that studies making use of audio and video recordings tend not to make them frequently enough: â€Å"Infrequent recordings for a short duration each time do not allow for conclusive evidence with regard to bilingual children’s ability to produce translation equivalents.†[12] Radford reviewing Paradis and Genesee (1996) remarks on a methodological shortcoming noted in many other studies, the use of a small corpus of data: â€Å"This might lead us to the conclusion that PG simply didn’t have enough data from enough children to support the sweeping theoretical claims that they make.†[13] Pearson and colleagues also criticize the emphasis on case studies â€Å"a form in which systematic comparisons with other children are not generally attempted.† [14] Their own research compared the language development of 25 English/ Spanish bilinguals with 35 monolinguals: â€Å"Without detailed information from a wide range of children, it is difficult to gain a broad perspective on what is typical and what is exceptional in early bilingual development.†[15] Radford states, â€Å"much of the evidence VT (Volterra and Taeschner) bring to bear in support of their claim that children start out with a common syntax for their two languages is based to a large extent on code-mixing.†[16] He suggests the fact that bilingual children are known to code mix cannot be seen as evidence for a single language system because adult also code switch and they are â€Å"generally assumed to have separate grammars for each language.† However, as has been stated earlier, children do not code mix in the way adults do. More problematic for supporters of the single language system is the finding by Genesee and colleagues that code mixing in early bilinguals is not as common as Volterra and Taeschner claim.[17] These researchers discovered that code mixing takes place in only 1%-7% of bilingual children’s utterances. Like Radford, Genesee claims that there are serious methodological and interpretative shortcomings with much research into simultaneous bilingualism. In order for the single system hypothesis to be valid, bilingual children would need to â€Å"use items from both languages indiscriminately in all contexts of communication.†[18] However, as Genesee makes clear, most research in the field has failed to analyse the data by context. Volterra and Taeschner for example, present isolated examples of the child addressing one parent only.[19] Vihman did look at her bilingual child’s utterances in context but she focused on one language only.[20] If the appearance, then decline, of code mixing in early bilingual development is not necessarily evidence of a single language system, what other factors may be responsible for the phenomenon? Vihman (1985) argues that the decline in mixing has more to do with the bilingual child gaining in sociolinguistic competence than evidence of the separation of language systems.[21] Lanza also suggests a more sociolinguistic explanation for code mixing: â€Å"Children do learn to differentiate their language: however, this differentiation process occurs in language socialisation through which they learn to differentiate ways of speaking according to the social demands of the situation.† [22] Other researchers point out that with the acquisition of more lexical items as the child’s language skills develop, there is less need to borrow between languages (the lexical gap hypothesis).[23] [24] Peterson claims bilingual children switch to their dominant language because they haven’t the lexicon or syntactic structure in the weaker one.[25] Bernardini agrees â€Å" in some young bilingual children†¦with uneven development, having one language that is clearly weaker than the other, sentence-internal code-mixing is a result of uneven lexical development in the two languages.† [26] Pearson and colleagues test the Volterra Taeschner (1978) claim â€Å"if children already have a lexical representation for a concept in either language, they will not be motivated to learn or use the word’s translation in the other.†[27] This follows Clark’s principle of contrast, which predicts an absence of synonymy in early lexical development in both monolingual and bilingual children.[28] Pearson and colleagues found no evidence to support Volterra Taeschner in their study of 27 early bilinguals. Quay also found â€Å"no foundation for the principle of contrast in (the) bilingual case (studied).† Quay points out â€Å"most studies do not take into account whether young bilinguals have the lexical resources to make a choice between their two languages.† [29] According to Grosjean one language may be dominant because the child is exposed to that language more frequently and needs it to communicate with more people.[30] Serratrice defined â€Å"language dominance in terms of the amount of input the child receives†. [31]It has been pointed out by a number of researchers that mixing may be linked to the child’s speech environment. [32] The bilingual child might code mix because he hears his parents or other adults doing so. It has been argued the â€Å"best way to avoid bilingual mixing in children is to have each parent speak only one language to the child.† [33] Quay suggests, â€Å"linguistic input from adult interlocutors must be taken into account in discussions of children’s language choices.†[34] Conclusions It is clear that many factors are involved in simultaneous bilingual acquisition. The debate over whether these young children develop one or two language systems initially has yet to be satisfactorily resolved. As many researchers point out parental input may well prove to be of particular importance. Whether the child has one system or two and thus resembles a single monolingual child or two monolingual children, it is clear that their â€Å"ability to understand two languages may be comparable in each language to monolingual children’s.†[35] Bernardini, P and Schlyter, S (2004) Growing syntactic structure and code-mixing in the weaker language: The Ivy hypothesis. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 7, 49-70 Clark, E (1987) The principle of contrast: a constraint on language acquisition. In B. MacWhinney (ed.) Mechanisms of Language Acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Genesee, F (1989) Early bilingual development: one language or two? Journal of Child Language 16, 161-179 Genesee, F. Nicoladis, E Paradis, J (1995) Language differentiation in early bilingual development. Journal of Child language 22, 611-630 Grosjean, F (1982) Life with two languages: an introduction to bilingualism. Cambridge MA: Harvard Uni press Lanza, E. (1992) Can bilingual two-year-olds code-switch? Journal of Child language 19, 633-657 Lindholm, K and Padilla, A (1978) Child bilingualism: report on language mixing, switching and translations. Linguistics 211, 23-44 Paradis, J. and Genesee, F. (1996). ‘Syntactic acquisition in bilingual children: autonomous orinterdependent?’ Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18: 1-25. Pearson, B, Fernandez, S and Oller, D 1993. Lexical development in bilingual infants and toddlers: comparison to Monolingual norms. Language Learning 43:1, 93-120 Pearson, B, Fernandez, S and Oller, D 1995. Cross-language synonyms in the lexicons of bilingual infants: One language or two? Journal of Child Language 22, 345-368 Pearson, B. Fernandez, S. Lewedeg, V Oller, K (1997). The relation of input factors to lexical learning by bilingual infants. Applied Psycholinguistics 18, 41-58 Peterson, J (1988) Word-internal code-switching constraints in a bilingual child’s grammar. Linguistics, 26, 479-493 Quay, S (1995) The bilingual lexicon: implications for studies of language choice. Journal of Child Language 22, 369-387 Radford, A (2005) Children’s English: Principles-and-Parameters Perspectives. University of Essex. Serratrice, L. Referential cohesion in the narratives of bilingual English-Italian children and monolingual peers. Journal of Pragmatics 39 (2007) 1058–1087 1083 Vihman, M. (1985) Language differentiation by the bilingual infant. Journal of Child Language 12, 297-324 Volterra, T and Taeschner, T (1978) The acquisition and development of language by bilingual children. Journal of Child Language 5, 311-326 1 Footnotes [1] Lanza (1992:634) [2] Pearson et al (1993:112) [3] Genesee (1989) [4] Volterra and Taeschner (1978) [5] Vihman (1985:316) [6] Lindholm and Padilla (1978) [7] Vihman (1985:317) [8] Genesee (1989:174) [9] Paradis and Genesee (1996). [10] Quay (1995:385) [11] Quay (1995:382) [12] Quay (1995:383) [13] Radford (2005) [14] Pearson et al (1993:95) [15] Pearson et al (1995:348) [16] Radford (2005) [17] Genesee et al (1995) [18] Genesee (1989:165) [19] Volterra and Taeschner (1978) [20] Vihman (1985) [21] Vihman (1985) [22] Lanza (1992:654) [23] Volterra and Taeschner (1978) [24] Lindholm and Padilla (1978) [25] Peterson (1988) [26] Bernardini and Schlyter (2004:49) [27] Pearson et al (1995:346) [28] Clark (1987) [29] Quay (1995:369) [30] Grosjean (1982) [31] Serratrice (2007) [32] Genesee (1989) [33] Genesee (1989:170) [34] Quay (1995:383) [35] Pearson et al (1993:113)

Porphyrias Lover and My Last Duchess by Robert Browning Essay -- Rober

Compare the two poems ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ and ‘My Last Duchess’ by Robert Browning. What do they reveal about attitudes to women and relationships in the nineteenth century? Robert Browning was one of the greatest poets of the nineteenth century. In 1842, he published ‘Dramatic Lyrics’ which included the two poems ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ and ‘My Last Duchess’. In ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ Browning gives the reader a dramatic insight into the twisted mind of an abnormally possessive lover, who wishes the moment of love to last forever. In this essay, ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ will be compared to Robert Browning’s other dramatic monologue, ‘My Last Duchess’, where an Italian aristocrat reveals his cruelty to his late wife whilst showing off a portrait of her to one of his guests. Robert Browning’s poems ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ and ‘My Last Duchess’ were both written in the form of a dramatic monologue. Both poems show a similarity because they are both narrated from the male lover’s point of view. As a result, the reader becomes more closely involved in the poems and can feel very strong emotions for the individuals portrayed than if the poem was written from the eyes of an ‘outsider’. This form of writing enables Browning to use irony, in which the real meaning is concealed or contradicted by the literal meanings of the words. For example, in ‘My Last Duchess’ the Duke orders the death of his wife, though hides the true meaning in his words: ‘ Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands; Then all smiles stopped together.’ ‘My Last Duchess’ is also written in the form of a single stanza poem, which is the unit of a poem that consists of two or more lines of verse organised according to the content and form and usually repeated as a recurring pattern in the poem. By contrast, ‘Porphyria’s Lover’ does not follow this pattern, but has a different rhyming scheme. On the surface, the narrators in each poem show completely different characteristics. In ‘Porphyria’s Lover’, the narrator shows powerful emotions towards Porphyria, which demonstrate his strong romantic feelings. The reader acknowledges that the narrator is passionately in love, as the following extract demonstrates. â€Å"Too weak, for all her heart’s endeavour, To set its struggling passion free From pride, and vainer ties dissever And give herself to me forever.† By contrast, the Duke in ‘My La... ...all night long we have not stirred And yet God has not said a word† You can compare this to ‘My Last Duchess’ where again, the Duke shows no remorse for ordering the death of his wife. The modern reader is given an insight into the way relationships between men and women were viewed in the last century, and earlier, during the time of the Renaissance. Without doubt, men had the dominant role, and women had little personal freedom. Women were duty-bound to show unquestioning respect for the men in their lives, regardless of how they were treated. In Porphyria’s lover, Browning shows us the vision of a woman who is not following this role model. In fact, she is completely the opposite, and as such, she is fulfilling the role of a male fantasy by taking a dominant role, with obvious sexual intentions. In the nineteenth century this would have had the dual effect of being both sensational and revolutionary. In the eyes of a modern reader, neither poem is particularly shocking, as people are more accustomed to material of a revealing nature. This shows that when reading and understanding texts, the reader has to bear in mind the times and context in which they were written.

Project Management Recommendation Essay

In response it is to your previous E-mail with the attention of the projects of Juniper, Palomino and Stargazer. The team is found and analyzed the three projects, assessed the risk that each project contains as well as returns on investment (ROI). There are many aspects one should think over when performing an investment decision. These may include the hypothesis of underlying the potential benefits and the ability to calculate and quantify the costs and benefits. However, the team concluded Stargazer Project in the best option comparing to other two projects. The logic behind for not selecting the other two projects is that juniper’s risk of completion of the project on time is low. While is Palomino not valued at with the medium risk of completion and the uncertainty of the costs of the products. The procedure used for reaching the decision was by utilizing the feasibility study. In addition to that, the feasibility study was based on the information observed the team durin g the initial stage of the project. This will define and summarize the findings of these projects in a way that supports sound decision making. The reason of introducing the feasibility study is to provide reliable analysis for the project that will make sense to the company in general. Furthermore, it will answer several important questions concerning of the project these may include length of the project, benefits and risks and Return on investment (ROI) to Piper Industries. Introducing the feasibility study for both Juniper and Palomino projects, materials introduced would not present as with the Stargazer model. Although is Stargazer carries the highest risk comparing the other projects. The team believes bases on the analysis that it provides accommodation for the project to perform high-risk, high- reward. After the actual risk of the project has been acknowledged, the project team estimates the risk based on the probability that may likely  happen, and the possible loss related with the project. To mitigate the risk the team will search an alternative to reduce the operating costs as its forecasted the derivative product will cost more. The fundamental decision of the big- picture is what mix of projects is best for the organization. A company must have the right mix of the projects that extremely assists the company’s strategy. This can be aligned Stargazer model because of the research and the development previously started for the new widgets as well the significant changes that will provide modern markets. (Jacobs & Chase, 2011). Break- Even Analysis Break – even analysis helps to provide reliable information between sales and profits as well as the costs. It also contributes an analysis the amount of success of the project must achieve. Finally, the approach presents to organizations a benchmark to compare a process or a project to what level of operating leverage will create better profits. However, comparing the projects’ Stargazer is the most likely project that will create the highest revenue. (Jacobs & Chase, 2011) The five phases of project planning A project is a set of activities that normally coordinate toward some major output and planned considerable period of time to carry out. In the meantime, project management is described as planning, directing, and controlling resources, which are the people, equipment and the material in order to meet the technical, cost and the limitations of the project. (Jacobs & Chase, 2011), There are five distinctive phases in project management that imply the stargazer model. First-Phase is the Project Conception and Initiation. The focal point of this phase is to secure the project that it is demonstrated into practical and will benefit the Piper Industries Corp. Second phase is project definition and planning. During this phase, the extent of the project will require an outline so the work which has to be performed is attainable. These may include activities that arrange budgets and timelines. Furthermore, planning incorporates the creation of clear and precise objectives defines the work  activities that have to be done in order achieve the planned objective. The purpose may necessitate the achievement of a condition that varies from the present one. Third Phase is the project execution. In this phase, the team must start executing the project against their assigned responsibilities. This phase is where every team member will start the task. It will coordinate the team and the resource to execute the different tasks of the project. Fourth Phase is the project controlling and Monitoring. In this phase of controlling the project manager must start monitoring the situation closely in order to make sure that the tasks are moving as it is planned. There are several ways to control the project this may involve a check – ins with team and more official weekly meeting, together with organized daily stand -ups are considered productive. (Jacobs & Chase, 2011) Project close when all the tasks of the project are approved the firm. The project is officially closed. The manager of the project must organize all the necessary information for future reference. Key Deliverables The Stargazer project is based on the content in order to meet clear deliverable in a matter for the firm to be successful and to consider the project beneficial. Researching and developing new widget and delivering such an innovative product to the market will help in the long-term strategy. References Chase, R. (2011). Operations and supply chain management (13th ed.). Boston, MA McGraw – Hill Irwin .. Jacobs, F. R., & Chase, R. (2011). Operations and supply management (13th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill Irwin Project Management Recommendation Email [Multimedia]. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, OPS/571 Operations Management website.

Macbeth Essay - 1155 Words

â€Å"It is neither the wickedness of the witches nor the urging of Lady Macbeth that finally ruins Macbeth. His basic weakness leads him astray.† In Shakespeares grand tragedy of blood, we are pitched into the time of a valiant warrior who has constantly been trustworthy to his king, until he hears of a prophecy that he will befall king. This is where the universe begins to acquire an unbalanced shift. This disturbance has occurred as a result of Macbeth’s various weaknesses. His sensitivity to his feelings of insecurity which was played upon by the witches, how his manhood was attacked by Lady Macbeth, his drive for ambition and his fear of guilt greatly contributed to the destruction and transformation of Macbeth that lead him off†¦show more content†¦The prophecies understood by the witches are the basis for Macbeth’s weakness of insecurity and in turn is one of the flaws which contribute to his downfall. Macbeths appearance fluctuates from his true self. Macbeth depicts himself to be strong and prudent, but inside he is truthfully weak. This tragic flaw that Macbeth demonstrates is another significant weakness which questions his manliness. His masculinity was an issue for Lady Macbeth so she uses her expertise of manipulation to attack his manhood and persuade him to kill Duncan. When you durst do it, then you were a man; And, to be more than what you were, you would be so much more the man. This quotation compares Macbeth to â€Å"a baby that milks me† mocking Macbeth’s manhood. Stated by Lady Macbeth, this shows her determination and fearfulness pushing her husband into the path of the crime. Macbeth’s weakness is made observable when Lady Macbeth speaks â€Å"Are you a man?† She’s unquestionably praying on Macbeth’s imperfection, trying to use her manipulation to challenge his pride and manliness to get him to fulfil her needs and desires . 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